The history of English slavery is deeply intertwined with the broader narrative of England's political, economic, and religious transformations, stretching back to the reign of Henry VIII. While his reign (1509-1547) is primarily associated with his break from the Roman Catholic Church and his tumultuous marriage to Anne Boleyn, it also laid the groundwork for England's eventual participation in the transatlantic slave trade. This connection is indirect but significant, as the political, naval and economic foundations established during Henry's reign would later support England’s imperial ambitions, including its involvement in the slave trade.
Henry VIII: Foundations of empire and expansion
Henry VIII’s break from the Catholic Church in the Vatican and the establishment of the Church of England were not just religious acts but also strategic moves to centralise power in the monarchy. This centralisation enabled the crown to exert greater control over England's resources and pursue aggressive foreign policies. The development of England’s navy, a key aspect of Henry’s reign, would later become instrumental in the nation’s global expansion and involvement in the slave trade.
The dissolution of the monasteries, a key aspect of Henry’s break from Rome, also provided the crown with wealth that could be used to finance exploratory and commercial ventures abroad. However, during Henry VIII's time, England was not yet a major player in the transatlantic slave trade. The systematic transportation of African slaves to the Americas would not fully develop until the late 16th and early 17th centuries.
The Elizabethan Era: The dawn of English slave trading
The Elizabethan era, under Henry VIII’s daughter, Elizabeth I (1558-1603), marked the true beginning of English involvement in the slave trade. Figures like Sir John Hawkins, often regarded as England’s first slave trader, made several voyages to West Africa in the 1560s, capturing Africans and selling them into slavery in the Spanish colonies. These expeditions were financially backed by Elizabeth herself, motivated by a desire to expand English influence and wealth.
During this period, English privateers like Sir Francis Drake, who was not just an explorer but also a pirate, played a significant role in establishing England's early naval supremacy. Drake’s raids on Spanish ships and ports in the Caribbean laid the groundwork for England’s future dominance in the Atlantic and its role in the slave trade. The victory over the Spanish Armada in 1588 further solidified England’s naval power, allowing it to expand its empire and engage more actively in the transatlantic trade.
The Pilgrim Fathers and the deepening of Anglo-Saxon Protestant ideals
The early 17th century saw another significant development with the departure of the Pilgrim Fathers from England in 1620. These Puritans, who sought religious freedom, established a colony in what would later become Massachusetts. Although they were fleeing persecution, the Pilgrims brought with them a rigid set of Anglo-Saxon Protestant ideals that would later become deeply entrenched in the American Deep South. This belief system emphasised hard work, individualism, and a sense of divine purpose, which later intertwined with the justification for slavery in the American colonies.
The Pilgrim Fathers’ legacy contributed to the cultural and religious framework that supported the institution of slavery in the Southern United States. As their descendants moved southward, these ideals helped shape a society where slavery was not only accepted but seen as divinely sanctioned—a stark contrast to the values of freedom and independence that the Pilgrims had initially sought.
Economic and religious justifications for slavery
The economic and religious shifts that began under Henry VIII and Elizabeth I continued to evolve, providing the justifications needed for England's deepening involvement in slavery. The Protestant Reformation, initiated by Henry VIII, contributed to a sense of English exceptionalism and a belief in the moral superiority of Protestantism. This religious justification was used to legitimise the exploitation of indigenous peoples in the New World and Africans, who were seen as "heathens" to be converted and controlled.
The triangular trade, which emerged in the 17th century, became a cornerstone of the English economy. This trade involved the shipment of goods from England to Africa, the transportation of enslaved Africans to the Americas, and the return of goods like cotton, sugar and tobacco to England. The wealth generated from this trade fueled further expansion and industrialisation , embedding slavery deeply into the fabric of English and later American society.
The role of England's slave ports
As England's involvement in the slave trade grew, several ports became key hubs for this inhumane practice:
Liverpool: By the 18th century, Liverpool had become the leading slave-trading port in Britain, responsible for nearly half of all British voyages that transported enslaved Africans. The city’s docks, shipyards and merchants were heavily invested in the business of human trafficking.
Bristol: Bristol was another major player in the 17th and 18th centuries, with its economy thriving on the profits from trading enslaved Africans, who were forcibly transported to the Caribbean and American colonies.
London: As the capital, London played a crucial role in financing and organising slave voyages. The city’s merchants and financiers provided the capital needed to outfit ships and underwrite voyages, making London an essential hub in the slave trade network.
Lancaster: Though smaller, Lancaster was significantly involved in the slave trade, with its port handling numerous voyages that trafficked enslaved Africans to the Americas. The wealth generated by the slave trade extended into the city’s modern fabric.
My connection to Lancaster, Sainsbury’s Incident, and reflection on slavery’s legacy
I lived in Lancaster for fifty years, owning a modernised penthouse in a converted warehouse on St George’s Quay, along the river Lune. This river, which flows to the Irish Sea, was once a crucial site for the unloading of cargo, including that from slave ships. The historical significance of my own was brought into sharper focus when I learned about an enslaved man named Sambo, who had escaped from a ship and fled to Sunderland Point, where his spirit is said to rest. My time in Lancaster, therefore, intertwined my personal history with the broader narrative of the slave trade and its lingering effects.
Adding to this, my personal encounter with racism in 1986 at a Sainsbury’s supermarket in Lancaster was a stark reminder of the prejudices that still permeate English society. While shopping, I was unjustly accused of shoplifting by local police officers — an incident steeped in racial bias. This experience not only deepened my understanding of the systemic racism rooted in England’s past but also connected me emotionally to the historical struggles faced by the enslaved and their descendants.
Global observations and the enduring impact of colonialism
My travels around the world have provided me with a unique perspective on the chaos and divisions caused by historical and colonial tactics of divide and rule. From the Malvinas (Falkland Islands), Gibraltar to the Israeli kibbutzim and Palestinian territories, I witnessed the enduring legacy of imperial strategies. In Arabia, the impact of T.E. Lawrence’s actions on the region's fragmentation was evident. In Malaysia and India, I saw the scars left by British colonialism and its lasting influence on local conflicts and divisions.
These global experiences allowed me to connect the dots between past injustices and present-day conflicts. My personal encounters with the consequences of imperial policies deepened my sympathy for the underdog and shaped my perspective on justice and equity.
The legacy of slavery: From the American Civil War to modern-day divides
The legacy of the transatlantic slave trade continued to shape history long after the abolition of slavery. Figures like John Newton, a former slave trader who later became an abolitionist and wrote Amazing Grace, played pivotal roles in the movement to end slavery. The deep divisions caused by slavery led to the American Civil War, a conflict that sought to address the grievances of a nation divided by the issue of human bondage.
The aftermath of the Civil War saw the rise of Ku Klux Klan, a white supremacist group that sought to maintain racial segregation and disenfranchisement of African Americans. The assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. and the ongoing civil rights struggles highlight the enduring impact of slavery on American society. Cultural works like the film Gone with the Wind romanticised the antebellum South, subtly reinforcing the myths of a "lost cause."
Modern-day divides: Brexit, Trumpism, and global unrest
The legacy of slavery and racial division persists today, manifesting in movements like Trumpism in the USA and the Brexit movement in the UK. Both have been driven, in part, by a right-wing Anglo-Saxon narrative that seeks to reclaim a perceived lost national identity and cultural dominance.
Brexit: The vote to leave the European Union was influenced by a complex mix of economic, cultural and racial anxieties. Some right-wing factions capitalised on fears of immigration and the loss of "traditional" British values, echoing the xenophobic sentiments that have long roots in Britain’s colonial past. The Brexit movement, in many ways, represents a modern expression of the same insular and supremacist ideologies that fuelled the British empire’s expansion and exploitation, including the slave trade.
Trumpism: In the USA, Trumpism has similarly tapped into deep-seated racial and cultural grievances, often harking back to an idealised vision of a predominantly white, Anglo-Saxon past. The January 6 uprising of 2021, fuelled by these divisions, is a stark reminder of how the unresolved legacies of slavery and racial inequality continue to destabilise society.
The rise of far-right media outlets like GB News in the UK has also played a significant role in amplifying these divisive narratives. These platforms often stoke fears around issues of immigration, national identity and race, reinforcing the same cultural anxieties that underpin the narrative of Brexit and Trumpism. Figures like Nigel Farage in the UK and former President Donald Trump in the USA have become symbols of these movements, often invoking nostalgia for a time when their nations were perceived as more homogenous and powerful. This rhetoric, which echoes the imperialist and exclusionary ideologies of the past, continues to fuel societal divides.
The impact of media and political rhetoric
GB News and similar media outlets have been instrumental in shaping public opinion around these issues. By framing immigration and multiculturalism as threats to national identity, they perpetuate the same fears that have historically justified exclusion and oppression. This media landscape amplifies the voices of right-wing figures like Lee Anderson, who often espouse populist and nationalist sentiments that resonate with those who feel left behind by globalisation and social change.
Enoch Powell’s infamous “Rivers of Blood” speech from 1968 is another example of how political rhetoric can have long-lasting effects. Powell’s speech, which warned of racial conflict due to immigration, tapped into deep-seated anxieties and has had a lingering influence on British political discourse. Today, the echoes of Powell’s rhetoric can be seen in the debates over immigration, multiculturalism, and national identity that continue to polarise British society.
Megan Markle, the Duchess of Sussex, and the modern royal divide
The treatment of Meghan Markle, Duchess of Sussex, by the British press and segments of the public is a contemporary example of how racial and cultural tensions manifest in modern Britain. As a biracial woman who married into the British royal family, Markle faced intense scrutiny and often racially charged criticism. Her experience highlights the challenges that people of colour face in navigating institutions steeped in tradition and history, particularly in a society still grappling with its colonial past.
Markle’s decision, along with Prince Harry, to step back from royal duties and relocate to the United States was partly driven by this relentless media harassment. Their story reflects the broader struggles within British society to reconcile its imperial history with its increasingly diverse and multicultural present.
The riots in England and Northern Ireland
The recent riots in England and Northern Ireland serve as a stark reminder of the social fractures that persist in these regions. These disturbances were fueled by a mix of economic hardship, political disenchantment, and lingering sectarian divisions, all of which can be traced back to historical injustices and divisions sown during Britain’s imperial era.
In Northern Ireland, the legacy of colonialism and the long-standing conflict between Unionists and Nationalists continue to affect the social and political landscape. The riots in 2023, sparked by post-Brexit tensions and the imposition of a trade border in the Irish Sea, are proof to the deep and unresolved issues that still plague the region.
A salutary warning: History was written by the winners
The history of English slavery, from its roots in the reign of Henry VIII to its entrenchment in the American Deep South, serves as a reminder that history is often written by the victors. The narratives we inherit are shaped by those who held power, often obscuring the suffering and exploitation that enabled their success.
As I reflect on my experiences in Lancaster and my travels around the world, I am reminded of the importance of remembering these histories, not only as distant events but as forces that continue to shape our present and future.
My experiences — from the Sainsbury’s incident in Lancaster to witnessing the global legacy of British colonialism — have deepened my understanding of how these historical narratives influence contemporary society. Whether in the subtle biases that persist in everyday interactions or the overt divisions that erupt into violence, the legacy of England’s imperial past remains a powerful force in shaping the world today.
Conclusion: The unfinished work of reconciliation
As I reflect on these experiences, I recognise the need for ongoing dialogue and reconciliation. The legacy of slavery and colonialism is not just a historical issue but a present-day challenge that requires acknowledgment and action. By confronting these histories honestly and openly, society can begin to address the deep-seated inequalities and divisions that continue to affect us all.
The history of English slavery is a complex and painful one, but it is also a crucial part of understanding the world we live in today. From the reign of Henry VIII to the modern-day movements of Brexit and Trumpism, the echoes of this history can be heard in the social and political challenges we face. As my journey shows, it is only by confronting these past injustices that we can hope to build a more just and equitable future.