Jimmy Carter, who died on December 29, was one of the most consequential American presidents as far as the Middle East peace process is concerned. Entering the White House in 1977 following a single term as governor of Georgia, Carter brought a unique combination of experiences to the presidency, shaping a foreign policy characterised by a blend of idealism, pragmatism and profound moral conviction. Deeply influenced by his evangelical faith, Carter sought to redefine American foreign policy with an emphasis on human rights and the pursuit of peace.
Carter’s idealism, however, was tempered by the harsh realities of the Cold War. While he championed human rights, he had to navigate the complex waters of strategic interests in the ongoing rivalry with the Soviet Union. This tension tempered his peacemaking efforts in the Middle East, where regional conflicts were intertwined with broader Cold War dynamics. Zbigniew Brzezinski, his national security adviser and a Sovietologist, was Carter’s closest White House confidant on foreign affairs.
The Arab-Israeli conflict was a major source of instability in the Middle East when Carter took office. Decades of violence and hostility, particularly between Israel and its Arab neighbours Egypt and Syria, had produced little progress towards peace. Carter quickly grasped the complexities of the conflict, which included Soviet involvement and the grievances of the Palestinian people, recognising its immense challenges.
Together with his secretary of state, Cyrus Vance, Carter initially sought to revive the Geneva Conference of December 1973 as a platform for achieving a comprehensive settlement. This effort reflected his belief in multilateral diplomacy and the necessity of addressing the aspirations of all parties, including the Palestinians. However, the obstacles were considerable. Jordan demanded the inclusion of the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO), a non-starter for Israel; meanwhile, Jordan and other Arab nations like Saudi Arabia and Syria preferred to negotiate as a bloc as they feared Egypt’s president, Anwar Sadat, would break ranks and negotiate directly with Israel because of domestic pressures. The conflict also played out as a proxy war between the United States and the Soviet Union, requiring the superpowers to temper competing interests. At home, Carter faced opposition from the American Jewish community, which was wary of his vocal support for human rights for the Palestinians, shaped in part by his evangelical faith.
Throughout 1977, Carter and Vance engaged in constant, rigorous dialogue with Arab and Israeli leaders to advance the Geneva talks. Their efforts were upended by a political shift in Israel when the conservative Likud Party, led by Menachem Begin, unexpectedly defeated the Labour Party in May. Begin’s hardline stance on territorial concessions and his ideological commitment to a “greater Israel” presented significant challenges to Carter’s vision of a negotiated peace.
As Carter’s Geneva initiative stalled, internal divisions among Arab leaders further complicated matters. Frustrated by the delays, Sadat announced his intention to travel to Jerusalem and engage directly with Israeli leaders—a bold and unprecedented move. Sadat’s visit in December 1977 marked the first time an Arab leader visited Israel, but while it generated global attention, the talks collapsed without resolving key issues like territorial withdrawal, Palestinian rights and the status of Jerusalem.
Determined to mediate, Carter intensified his efforts in 1978. Central to the negotiations was the question of Israeli withdrawal from occupied territories, including the Sinai Peninsula, the West Bank and Gaza. Egypt insisted on a full return to pre-1967 borders, while Israel resisted major concessions. Begin proposed a transitional framework for Palestinian autonomy, leaving sovereignty unresolved.
In July 1978, Carter invited Sadat and Begin to the presidential retreat at Camp David for direct negotiations. The summit, held from September 5 to 17, turned into a gruelling diplomatic effort. Carter, initially a facilitator, took a more active role after the talks hit a roadblock, presenting draft proposals to each leader for revision until a single text was agreed upon. Leveraging American military and economic might, Carter persuaded both sides to remain flexible, using the promise—and threat of withdrawal—of American support.
After nearly a fortnight, the parties signed two framework agreements on September 17. The first called for Israel’s withdrawal from the Sinai Peninsula in exchange for full diplomatic relations with Egypt, making it the first Arab state to recognise Israel. The second, more vaguely worded, proposed Palestinian self-governance in the West Bank and Gaza, acknowledging “the legitimate rights of the Palestinian people.”
Transforming these agreements into a formal treaty proved arduous. After months of deadlock, Carter travelled to Egypt and Israel in March 1979, securing Sadat’s approval to negotiate on Egypt’s behalf. By March 13, the parties agreed to a treaty text, which was signed later that month.
Carter’s personal commitment defined the Camp David Summit. Observers agree that seldom had a US president invested so much energy on a single foreign policy challenge. His understanding of the issues, ability to build trust with both Sadat and Begin, and moral emphasis on peace were crucial to the talks’ success. His leadership underscored the power of diplomacy, but also its limits. While the accords resolved the Egypt-Israel conflict, they left broader Arab-Israeli disputes, particularly Palestinian rights, unresolved.
Egypt’s peace with Israel weakened the Palestinian cause by removing a major source of pressure on Israel. Carter’s reluctance to engage with the PLO—partly to maintain Israeli cooperation—also undermined efforts to address Palestinian grievances. Furthermore, his exclusion of the Soviet Union precluded the possibility of comprehensive regional peace, as other Arab states were left out of the negotiations.
Still, the Camp David Accords remain a testament to Carter’s vision, leadership and dedication to peace. By bringing two adversaries together and guiding them towards a historic agreement, Carter reshaped the Middle Eastern geopolitical landscape. While the accords addressed only part of the region’s conflicts, they stand as a lasting example of the potential for diplomacy in resolving even the most intractable disputes.
