'India has advantage in high altitude combat': Lieutenant General S.L. Narasimhan (retd)

Lieutenant General S.L. Narasimhan (retd)

INDIAN FORCES HAVE a long and illustrious history of fighting in mountainous terrains. The Namgyal dynasty, which ruled Ladakh from 1462 CE, fought the Tibet-Ladakh-Mughal War (1679–1684), which culminated in the Treaty of Tingmosgang. While other wars may have been fought in the Himalayas by tribal chieftains, this war can be considered a starting point for modern-day mountain warfare. Subsequently, [Dogra general] Zorawar Singh's campaigns in Jammu, Kashmir, and Tibet further honed the art of fighting in such challenging terrains.

In 1849, the Punjab Irregular Force was formed, becoming one of the earliest units to develop tactics and experience in mountain warfare. The Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–1880) was one of the first major engagements where British and Indian troops encountered the challenges of mountain warfare against Afghan tribes. Similarly, the Tirah Campaign (1897–1898), fought in the North-West Frontier Province by British and Indian troops, was another significant operation in rugged mountainous regions.

The British Indian Army's expedition to Tibet, known as the Younghusband Expedition, took place between December 1903 and September 1904, involving a challenging march through Sikkim and Tibet. Between 1919 and 1939, the British Indian Army conducted several campaigns in Waziristan, combating tribal insurgents in mountainous regions. These experiences led to the development of mountain warfare tactics and doctrine, which were refined over time and passed down through generations of soldiers.

During World Wars I and II, Indian troops were deployed in various mountainous regions, including the Western Front, Gallipoli and North Africa, where their experience in mountain warfare proved invaluable.

After independence, the Indian Army was immediately engaged in the 1947–48 Jammu and Kashmir conflict, where mountain warfare played a crucial role. Recognising its importance, the Indian Army established a Ski School in 1948, renamed the High Altitude Warfare School (HAWS) in 1962.

From 1956 onwards, the Indian Army has conducted numerous counter-insurgency operations in mountainous regions, initially in the northeastern states and later in Jammu and Kashmir.

The Sino-Indian War (1962), fought primarily in Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh, was a high-altitude conflict. The valour and tactics displayed by the Indian Army inflicted heavy casualties on the Chinese soldiers. The wars with Pakistan in 1965 and 1971 further demonstrated the Indian armed forces’ capabilities in mountain warfare.

Operation Meghdoot (1984) marked a pre-emptive occupation of the Siachen Glacier, the world’s highest battlefield. In 1999, Indian forces fought Pakistani intruders in the icy heights of Kargil. More recently, in 2020, Indian and Chinese troops faced off in high-altitude areas, leading to fatal casualties on both sides. Since then, large numbers of Indian troops have been deployed in sub-zero temperatures and have acquitted themselves admirably.

The Indian Air Force has also earned distinction in this domain. During World War II, IAF personnel operated in mountainous regions such as the Western Front, Gallipoli, and North Africa. The IAF played a vital role in “The Hump” operations, airlifting supplies, equipment and personnel from India to China to support the war effort against Japan. Pilots navigated treacherous high-altitude terrain with unreliable maps and navigation aids, often facing unpredictable weather. During the Kargil War, the IAF played a critical role in providing air support to ground troops in the high-altitude regions of Kargil and Drass.

To support operations in Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir and the northeast, the IAF maintains several high-altitude airfields, such as those in Leh and Thoise. Additional high-altitude airfields at Daulat Beg Oldie, Fukche and Nyoma have also been made operational. The IAF conducts specialised training for personnel in air-to-ground operations, navigation and survival skills in extreme conditions.

The author is former member, National Security Advisory Board, and presently adjunct distinguished fellow, Gateway House, Mumbai.